The extinction of large animals by ancient humans triggered profound ecological changes that reshaped global history, according to a new essay series. In its final part, author Ed Stoddard explores how these 'aftershocks' led to denser forests in the Americas and Europe while burdening Africa with dangerous wildlife. This longue duree perspective highlights animals' role in human development.
In the third installment of his series on the Sixth Extinction's first wave, Ed Stoddard examines the long-term ecological consequences of ancient humans hunting megafauna to extinction outside Africa. Published on January 28, 2026, by Daily Maverick, the essay argues that these events, occurring during the Pleistocene and early Holocene, unleashed 'trophic cascades' that altered ecosystems worldwide.
Stoddard draws on the 'longue duree' approach from the Annales school of history to blend pre-history and history. He quotes African historian Christopher Ehret: “I see no value in the artificial separation of our human story into something called ‘history’ and something else called ‘pre-history’. Whatever human beings have done in the past is history.” Animals, too, share this history, with their actions influencing human paths.
Two key trends emerge. First, the loss of mega-herbivores like mammoths and ground sloths allowed forests to expand unnaturally in Europe, North America, and South America. Studies, including one from Aarhus University on dung beetle fossils, show that pre-extinction landscapes were more open and diverse. Christopher Johnson, in a 2009 Proceedings of the Royal Society paper, noted North America's once-richer mega-herbivore assemblage compared to modern Africa, predicting immense ecological shifts upon their disappearance.
These changes included denser woodlands, increased fires, and declines in plants co-evolved with megafauna. Without elephants as 'habitat engineers'—knocking down trees and dispersing seeds via dung—regions became less open, challenging the myth of a 'forest primeval' untouched by humans.
Second, Africa retained its megafauna, creating a 'beastly burden' that hindered development. Dangerous animals like hippos, crocodiles, lions, and elephants obstructed trade routes, agriculture, and livestock herding. Stoddard references Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel on domestication limits and links the ivory trade to colonial exploitation and the 'resource curse.' Conflicts, such as those fueling the Rwandan genocide between pastoralists and farmers, underscore ongoing tensions.
Today, many African megafauna persist, but rural poor live below a 'faunal poverty line,' viewing wildlife as a curse while Westerners see it as a blessing. Stoddard suggests this history can guide Anthropocene navigation for humans and animals alike.